HOME > PATOLOGIE: TRAUMI OCULARI
 
           
Cataratta Degenerazione maculare La Retinopatia Diabetica
           
Glaucoma Trapianto di cornea Chirurgia refrattiva : laser
           
Palpebre Vie lacrimali Distacco di retina Traumi oculari
           

 
CON COINVOLGIMENTO DEL SEGMENTO POSTERIORE IN ETA’ PEDIATRCA
 
Dott. Manlio Nicoletti   •   Dott. Silvia Garuti   •   Dott. Giorgio Tassinari
 


 
GESTIONE CHIRURGICA DEL DISTACCO DI RETINA TRAUMATICO < indietro

Il bulbo oculare presenta in età pediatrica rispetto all’adulto differenti rapporti vi-treo-retina periferica e quindi diversi punti di repere anatomo-chirurgici. Nei primi anni di vita si verificano importanti modificazioni nelle dimensioni del bulbo, nella lunghezza assiale del globo oculare ed in modo particolare a livello del segmento posteriore. Infatti mentre il segmento anteriore è all’incirca del 20% inferiore rispetto alle dimensioni adulte, il segmento posteriore è inferiore dell’80% circa. Il segmento posteriore aumenta drammaticamente di dimensione nei primi sei mesi di vita, fino a oltre il 50% (Larsen JS, 1971). A tre anni, la lunghezza assiale è approssimativamente il 95% rispetto all’adulto (Grignolo A, rivara A, 1968) (Sorsby A, 1989).

 
Fig 21:
Esiti di ferita perforante
con interessamento maculare
Fig.22:
Esiti di ferita penetrante con corpo
estraneo trattenuto in orbita.
 

I corpi ciliari presentano alla nascita una lunghezza media di 3,06 mm nasalmente e 3,31 mm temporalmente; a 24 mesi la lunghezza dei corpi ciliari è circa i ¾ rispetto all’occhio adulto (Aiello AL e coll., 1992). A sei anni di età, i corpi ciliari nasali rag-giungono il 90% della lunghezza da adulto, e i corpi ciliari temporali l’85%. Uno svi-luppo simile lo presenta la pars plana, che occupa il 75% della lunghezza totale dei corpi ciliari. Entrambe le strutture, corpi ciliari e pars plana sono presenti e distingui-bili alla nascita.
Questi diversi rapporti spaziali dell’occhio del bambino rispetto all’adulto condi-zionano le tecniche di chirurgia vitreoretinica. L’inserzione anteriore della retina (Daicker B, 1972) ( Kwitko ML, 1979) richiede la esecuzione delle sclerotomie in pars plicata (Maguire AM, Trese MT, 1992) per evitare rotture di retina iatrogene. Altro problema riguarda il cristallino che nei bambini occupa una parte maggiore del-la camera vitrea (Kwitko ML 1979) (Apple DJ, Naumann GOH, 1986), con maggiori difficoltà di manipolazione degli strumenti chirurgici per il rischio di danno mecca-nico al cristallino. Anche le correnti determinate dai fluidi di infusione in camera vi-trea possono danneggiare il cristallino.
In età pediatrica, il corpo vitreo presenta aderenze molto marcate con la retina e non è presente il distacco posteriore di vitreo WR, 1966) (Seebag J, 1991). Creare un distacco posteriore di vitreo durante la vitrectomia, a questa età è molto difficile e spesso impossibile per la tenace aderenza della ialoide posteriore alla retina. Altra ca-ratteristica da non sottovalutare è tendenza alla proliferazione vitreoretinica. E’ risa-puto che la proliferazione vitreoretinica ha in età pediatrica un decorso molto più pre-coce e rapido rispetto agli adulti (Bodard GE, e coll,, 1978).
Quando è necessario applicare un cerchiaggio episclerale bisogna ricordare che le bande in silicone larghe 2 mm o 2,5 mm, a questa età possono supportare un’ampia porzione di retina periferica, potendosi estendere dall’ora serrata fino all’equatore. Con l’età, l’ingrandimento del bulbo e il rilascio delle trazioni anteriori, può essere necessario rimuovere la banda di silicone anche per evitarne lo scivolamento poste-riore. La scelta del sostituto vitreale come mezzo tamponante è condizionata dalla difficoltà nell’utilizzo dei gas, relativa alla gestione postoperatoria, sia per il posizio-namento che per il monitoraggio della pressione intraoculare, a favore dell’utilizzo del silicone (Rodriguez F, Lewis H, 1991).
La prognosi visiva a lungo termine per i traumi oculari gravi in età pediatrica è in-certa e spesso non soddisfa le aspettative del medico, del paziente e della famiglia. L’ambliopia e la proliferazione vitreoretinica sono i due fattori che condizionano in maniera determinante i risultati visivi finali (Sternberg P, De Juan E, e coll., 1984) (Alfaro DV, Chaundhry NA, e coll., 1994) (Haut J, Larricart P, e coll., 1989) (Guil-lame JB, Godde-Jolly D, e coll., 1991) (Rodriguez F, Lewis H, 1991).

 
Aiello AL, Tran VT, Rao NA, et al: Postnatal development of the ciliary body and pars plana: A morphometric study in childhood. Arch Ophthalmol 1992; 110: 802-05
 
Aguilar JP, Green R. Choroidal rupture: a histopathologic study of 47 cases. Retina 1984; 4: 269
 
Alfaro DV, Chaudhry NA, Walonker AF, Runyan T, Saito Y, Ligget PPE. Pene-trating eye injuries in young children. Retina 1994; 14: 201-5
 
American Academy of Ophthalmology. Protective eyewear for young athletes. A joint statement of the American Academy of Pediatrics and the American Academy of Ophthalmology. Ophthalmology 1996; 103: 1325
 
Aycub C, Pfeifer D. The prophylaxis of child abuse and neglect. Child Abuse Negl 1977; 1:71-5
 
Aylward GW, Cooling RJ, Leaver PK: Trauma-induced retinal detachment associ-ated with giant retinal tears. Retina 1993; 13: 136
 
Apple DJ, Naumann GOH: General anatomy and development of the eye: Tech-niques of investigation. In Naumann GOH (ed): Pathology of the Eye. New York, Springer-Verlag, 1986; 1-18
 
Archer DB, Canavan YM: Contusional eye injuries: retinal and choroidal lesion. Aus J Ophthalmol 1983; 11: 251
 
Aron JJ, Marx P, Blanck MF et al. Ocular symptoms observed in Silverman’s syn-drome. Ann Ocul 1970; 203: 533-46
 
Baxter RJ, Hodkins PR, Caldser I, Morrel AJ, Vardy S, Elkington AR. Visual out-come of childhood anterior perforating eye injuries: prognostic indicators. Eye 1994; 8: 349-52
 
Beckingsdale AB, Resenthal AR: Early fundus fluorescein angiographic and se-quele in traumatic retinopathy: Case report. Br J Ophthalmol 1983; 67: 119-23
 
Behrens-Baumann W, Scheurer G, Schroer H. Pathogenesis of Purtscher’s reti-nopathy: an experimental study. Graefe’s Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 1992; 230: 286-91
 
Benson WE, Shakin J, Sarin LK. Blunt trauma. In: Tasman W, Jaeger EA, eds Clinical Ophthalmology. Vol. 3. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott, 1988, Chap 31
 
Billmire ME, Myers PA. Serious head injury in infants: accidental abuse? Pe-diatrics 1985; 75: 340-2
 
Bodard GE, Pasticier A, Biojout G, Forest A. Prognosis of the retinal detachment in children. J FR Ophthalmol 1978; 1: 589
 
Bressler SB, Bressler NM. Traumatic maculopathies. In: Shingleton BJ, Hersh PS, Kenyon KR, eds. Eye trauma. St. Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1991:187
 
Buys Y, Levin A, Enzenaver R et al. Retinal findings after head trauma in infants and young children. Ophthalmology 1992; 99: 1718-23
 
Caffey J. On the theory and practice of shaking infants: its potential residual ef-fects of permanent brain damage and mental retardation. Am J Dis Child 1972; 124:161-9
 
Canavan VM, O’Flaherty MJ, Archer DB, Elwood JH. A 10-year survey of eye injuries in northern Ireland, 1967-76. Br J Ophthalmol 1980; 64:618-25
 
Chuang EL, Miller FS, Kalina RE. Retinal lesions following long bone fractures. Ophthalmology 1985; 92: 370-4
 
Clarkson JG, Flynn HW, Daily MJ. Vitrectomy in Terson’s syndrome. Am J Oph-thalmol. 1980; 90: 549-52
 
Cox MS. Retinal breaks caused by blunt nonperforating trauma at the point of im-pact. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1980; 78: 414-66
 
Cox MS, Freeman HM: Retinal detachment due to ocular penetration. I. Clinical characteristics and surgical results. Arch Ophthalmol 1978; 96: 1354
 
Cox MS, Schepens CL, Freeman HM. Retinal detachment due to ocular contusion. Arch Ophthalmol 1966; 76: 678-85
 
Daicker B: Fetale Morphogenese. In Anatomie und Pathologie der menschlichen retino-ziliaren fundus-peripherie. New York, Karger, 1972; 8-27
 
Duke-Elder S: System of ophthalmology, vol II, The anatomy of the visual system, St Louis 1961, Mosby-Year Book, p 223
 
Dumas JJ: Retinal detachment following contusion of eye. Int Ophthalmol Clin 1967; 7(1): 19
 
Eaglin EM: Ocular damage after blunt trauma to the eye. Its relationship to the na-ture of injury. Br J Ophthalmol 1974; 58: 126
 
Elder JE, Taylor RG, Klug GL. Retinal haemorrhage in accidental head trauma in childhood. J Paediatr Child Health 1991; 27: 286-9
 
Elner SG, Elner VM, Arnall M, Albert DM. Ocular and associated systemic find-ings in suspected childs abuse: a necroscopsy study. Arch Ophthalmol 1990; 108: 1094-102
 
Espinasse-Berrod MA, David T, Parent de Curzon H, Mayer JM, Deplus S, Mer-land JJ, Campinchi R. Le syndrome de Terson. A propos de 7 cases. J FR Ophthalmol 1988: 11, 1, 43-51
 
Francois J, De Laey JJ: Etude fluoro-angiographique de l’angiopathie traumatique de la chorio-retine. Bull Soc Belg Ophthalmol 1970; 156: 577-89
 
Friendly DS. Ocular manifestations of physical child abuse. Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol 1971; 75: 318-32
 
Garcia-Arumi J, Corcostegui B, Cavero L, Sararols L. The role of vitreoretinal surgery in the treatment of posttraumatic macular hole. Retina 1997; 17: 372-77
 
Gass JMD. Stereoscopic Atlas of Macular Disease: Diagnosis and Treatment, 3rd edn. St Louis: CV Mosby, 1987; 346-8, 558-9
 
Gass JMD. “Berlin’s edema”. In: Stereoscopic Atlas of Macular Disease: Diagno-sis and Treatment, 3rd edn. St Louis: CV Mosby, 1987:552
 
Gaynon MW, Koh K, Marmor MF et al. Retinal folds in the shaken baby syn-drome. Am J Ophthalmol 1988; 106: 432-5
 
Ghafouri A, Burgees SK, Hrdlicka AK, Zagelbaum BM. Air bag-related ocular trauma. Am J Emerg Med 1997; 15: 389-92
 
Gilliland MG, Luckenbach MW, Massicotte SJ et al. The medicolegal implications of detecting hemosiderin in the eyes of children who are suspected of being abused. Arch Ophthalmol 1991; 109:321-3
 
Goetting MG, Sowa B. Retinal hemorrhage after cardiopulmonary resuscitation in children: an etiologic reevoluation. Pediatrics 1990; 85:585-8
 
Goffstein R, Burton TC: Differentiating traumatic from nontraumatic retinal de-tachment. Ophthalmology 1982; 89: 361
 
Goldberg MF. Choroidoretinal vascular anastomoses after blunt trauma to the eye. Am J Ophthalmol 1976; 82: 892
 
Gray JD, Cutler C, Dean J et al. Prediction and prevention af child abuse and ne-glect. J Soc Issues 1979; 35: 127-39
 
Green WR. Vitreous. In: Spencer WH, ed. Ophthalmic pathology, an atlas and textbook. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1966; 623.
Greenwald MJ. The shaken baby syndrome. Semin Ophthalmol. 1990; 5: 202-14
 
Greenwald MJ, Weiss A, Oesterle CS et al. Traumatic retinoschisis in battered ba-bies. Ophthalmology 1986; 93: 618-25
 
Grignolo A, Rivara A: Observations biometriques sur l’oeil des enfants nes a terme et des prematures au cours de la premiere anne. Ann Oculist (Paris) 1968; 201: 817-26
 
Gross JG, King LP, De Juan E Jr, Powers T. Subfoveal neovascular membrane re-moval in patients with traumatic choroidal rupture. Ophthalmol-ogy 1996; 103: 579-85
 
Guillame JB, Godde-Jolly D, Haut J, Monin C, Ruellan YM. Surgical treatment of traumatic retinal detachment in children under 15 years of age. J Fr Ophthalmol 1991; 14: 311
 
Han DP, Wilkinson WS. Late ophthalmic manifestation of the shaken baby syn-drome. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 1990; 27: 299-303
 
Hart JCD, Frank HJ: Retinal opacification after blunt non perforating concussional injuries to the globe; a clinical and retinal fluorescein angiographic study. Trans Ophthalmol Soc UK 1975; 95: 94
 
Haut J, Larricart P, Kmiha N, Flamand N. Post-traumatic retinal detachment in children under 15 years of age. Ophthalmology 1989; 3: 35
 
Ilsar M, Chirambo M, Belkin M. Ocular injuries in Malawi. Br J Ophthalmol 1982; 66: 145-8
 
Jensen AD, Smith RE, Olson MI. Ocular clues to child abuse. J Pediatr Ophrthalmol Strabismus 1971; 8: 270-2
 
Kaur B, Taylor D. Fundus hemorrhages in infrancy. Surv Ophthalmol 1992; 37: 1-17.
 
Khan SG, Frenkel M: Intravitreal hemorrhage associated with rapid increase in in-tracranial pressure. J Neurosurg 1974; 41: 167-76
 
Keithahn M, Bennet S, Cameraon D, Mieler W. Retinal folds in Terson syndrome. Ophthalmology 1993; 100: 1187-90
 
Kelley JS, Dhalival RS. Traumatic chorioretinopathies. In: Ryan J, ed. Retina, 2nd ed. St. Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1994:783
 
Kempe CH, Silverman RN, Steele BF, Droegemueller W, Silver HK. The battered child syndrome. J Am Med Assoc 1962; 181:17-34
 
Kiffney GT. The eye of the ‘battered child’. Arch Ophthalmol 1964; 72:231-3
 
Kirschner RH, Stein RJ. The mistaken diagnosis of child abuse. A form of medical abuse? Am J Dis Child 1985; 139: 873-5
 
Knapp H. Ueber isolirte zerreissungen der aderhaut in folge von traumen auf dem augapfel. Arch Augenheilek 1869; 1: 6-29
 
Kolino T, Miki T, Hayashi K. Choroidopathy after blunt trauma to the eye: a fluo-rescein and indocyanine green angiographic study. Am J Ophthalmol 1998; 126: 248-60
 
Kuhn F, Morris R, Witherspoon D, et al: A standardized classification of ocular trauma. Ophthalmology 1996; 103: 240
 
Kwitko ML: The infant eye. In Kwitko ML (ed): Surgery of the Infant Eye. East Norwalk, CT, Appleton and Lange, 1979; 1-14
 
Lambert SR, Johnson TE, Hoyt CS. Optic nerve sheath and retinal hemorrhages associated with the shaken baby syndrome. Arch Ophthalmol 1986; 104: 1509-12
 
Larsen GS. The sagital growth of the eye. IV. Ultrasonic measurements of the axial length of the eye from birth to puberty. Arch Ophthalmol 1971; 49: 873
 
LaRoche GR, McIntyre L, Schertzer RN. Epidemiology of severe eye injuries in childhood. Ophthalmology 1988; 95: 1603-7
 
Last RJ: Wolff’s anatomy of the eye and orbit, ed 6, Philadelphia, 1968, WB Saunders, p 103.
 
Levine AV. Ocular manifestation of child abuse. Oph-thalmol Clin North Am. 1990; 3: 249-64.
 
Lyle DJ, Stapp JP, Button RR. Ophthalmologic hydrostatic pressure syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol 1957; 44: 652-6.
 
Maguire AM, Trese MT: Lens-sparing vitreoretinal surgery in infants. Arch Oph-thalmol 1992; 110: 284-86.
 
Malbran E, Dodds R, Hulsbus R: Traumatic retinal detachment, Mod Probl. Oph-thalmol 1972; 10: 479.
 
Mansour AM, Green WR, Hogge C, et al: Histopathology of commotio retinae. Retina 1992; 12: 24-8.
 
Marcus DM, Albert DM. Recognizing child abuse. Arch Ophthalmol 1992; 110: 766-8
 
Margherio AR, Margherio RR, Hartzer M, et al. Plasmine enzime-assisted vitrec-tomy in traumatic pediatric macular holes. Ophthalmology 1998; 105: 1617-20.
 
Margherio RR, Schepens CL. Macular breaks: Diagnosis, etiology, and observa-tions. Am J Ophthalmol 1972; 74: 219.
 
Mieler WF, Ellis MK, Williams DF, Han DP. Retained intraocular foreign bodies and endophthalmitis. Ophthalmology 1990; 97: 1532-8.
 
Moreira CA, Debert-Ribeiro M, Belfort R. Epidemiological study of eye injuries in Brasilian children. Arch Ophthalmol 1988; 106: 781-4.
 
Morris R, Witherspoon CD, Kuhn F, Brown S. Epidemiology of Pediatric Injuries from the Injury Registry of Alabama (ERA). Presented at the First International Symposium of Ophthalmology. Bordeaux, France, 9-11 September, 1993.
 
Muller PJ, Deck JHN. Intraocular optic nerve sheath hemorrage in case of sudden intracranial hypertension. J Neurosurg 1974; 41: 160-6.
 
Mushin A, Morgan G. Ocular injury in the battered baby syndrome. Br J Ophthalmol 1971; 55: 343-7.
 
National Society to Prevent Blindness. Play it Safe. Schauberg, IL: National Soci-ety to Prevent Blindness, 1988
 
Niiranen M, Raivio I. Eye injuries in children. Br J Ophthalmol 1981; 65: 436-8.
 
Olver JM, Hague S. Children presenting to an ophthalmoc casualty department. Eye 1989; 3: 415-19.
 
Power MH, Regillo CD, Custis PH. Trombocitic thrombocytopenic purpura asso-ciated with Purtscher retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 1997; 115: 128-9.
 
Purtscher O: Noch unbekannte Befunde nach Schaedel trauma. Berl Dtsch Ophthal Ges 1910; 36: 294-301.
 
Purtscher O: Angiopathia retinae traumatica: Lymphorrhagien des Augengrundes. Grafes Archives for Clinical and Experimental ophthalmology 1912; 82: 347-71.
 
Pulido JSW, Blair NP: The blood-retinal barrier in Berlin’s edema. Retina 1987; 7: 233-36.
 
Rapaport I, Romen M, Kinek M etal. Eye injuries in children in Israel: a national collaborative study. Arch Ophthalmol 1990; 108: 376-9.
 
Riffenburgh R, Sathyavagiswarand L. Ocular findings at autopsy of child abuse victims. Ophthalmology 1991; 98: 1519-24
 
Rodriguez F, Lewis H. Vitreoretinal surgery and silicone oil injection for severe penetrating ocular trauma in children. Ophthalmology 1991; 98 (suppl): 257.
 
Satterfield D, Keltner JL, Morrison TL. Psycosocial aspects of strabismus study. Arch Ophthalmol 1993; 111: 1100-4.
 
Scharf J, Zonis S. Perforating injuries of the eye in childhood. J Pediatr Ophthalmol 1975; 13:326-8.
 
Sedlak A. A study of National Incidence and Prevalence of Childhood Abuse and Neglect. Bethesda, MD: Westat, 1987.
 
Schultz PN, Sobol WM, Weingeist TA: Long-term visual outcome in Terson’s syndrome. Ophthalmology 1991; 98: 1814-19.
 
Sebag J. Age related differences in the human vitreoretinal interface. Arch Oph-thalmol 1991; 109: 966.
 
Shaw HE, Landers MB, Syndor CF. The significance of intraocular hemorrages due to subarachnoid hemorrage. Ann Ophthalmol. 1977; 19: 1403-5.
 
Sorsby A: Biology of the eye as an optical system. In Tasman W, Jaeger EA (eds): Duane’s Clinical Ophthalmology. Philadelphia, Lippincott, 1989: 1.
 
Soumenkoff G, Marnefe C, Gerard M et al. A coordinated attempt for prevention of child abuse at the antenatal care level. Child Abuse Negl 1981; 6: 87-94.
 
Spaide RF, Svengel RM, Scharre DW, Mein CE. Shaken baby syndrome. Am Fam Physician. 1990; 41: 1145-52.
 
Sternberg P, De Juan E, Michels RG. Penetrating ocular injuries in young patient. Initial injuries and visual results. Retina 1984; 4: 5.
 
Terson A: De l’hemorrhagie dans le corps vitreè aucours de l’hemorrhagie cere-brale. Clin Ophthalmol 1900; 6: 309-12.
 
Terson A. Le syndrome de l’hèmatome du corps vitrè et de l’hèmorragie intracra-nienne spontanee. Ann Ocul. 1926; 163, 66-673
 
Tezel TH, Del Priore LV, Kaplan HJ. Posterior vitreous detachment with dispase. Retina 1998; 18: 7-15
 
Thompson JT, Parver LM, Enger CL, Mieler WF, Ligget PE, for the National Eye Trauma System. Infectious endophthalmitis after penetrating injuries with retained intraocular foreign bodies. Ophthalmology 1993; 100: 1468-74.
 
Thompson WS, Rubsamen PE, Flynn HW Jr, Schiffman J, Cousins SW. Endophthalmitis following penetrating trauma: Risk factors and visual acuity out-comes. Ophthalmology 1995; 102: 1696-701.
 
Tomasi LG, Rosman NP. Purtscher’s retinopathy in the battered child syndrome. Am J Dis Child 1975; 129: 1335-7.
 
Toosi SH, Malton M: Terson’s syndrome-significance of ocular findings. Ann Ophthalmol 1987; 19: 7-12.
 
Vanderlinden RG, Chrisholm LD: Vitreous hemorrhages and sudden increased in-tracranial pressure. J Neurosurg 1974; 41: 167-76
 
Verstraeten TC, Chapman C, Hartzer M, et al. Pharmacologic induction of poste-rior vitreous detachment in the rabbit. Arch Ophthalmol 1993; 111: 849-54
 
Weingeist TA, Goldman EJ, Folk JC, et al: Terson’s syndrome. Clinicopathologic correlations. Ophthalmology 1986; 93: 1435-42.
 
Williams DF, Mieler WF, Williams GA. Posterior segment manifestation of ocular trauma. Retina 1990; 10: S35-S44.
 

torna in alto ^ < indietro
 
Ospedale Maggiore C.A. Pizzardi Divisione di Oculistica Largo B. Nigrisoli, 2 - 40133 Bologna ITALY